İtalyan düşünür Cesare Beccaria tarafından yazılan ve Sami Selçuk tarafından Türkçeye çevrilen kitap hukukçular için başucu kitaplarından biri. Beccaria’nın 1765’li yıllarda sadece 27 yaşında iken yazmış olduğu bu kitabı okurken düşüncelerin ciddi bir zihin jimnastiğinden süzülen değerli damlalar olduğunu anlamak mümkün. Sami Selçuk’un özverili çevirisi ile İmge yayınlarından basılan kitap bazen öztürkçe kelimelerin çokluğu bazen de fikir yoğunluğundan dolayı zor ilerlese de sindire sindire, ağır ağır, düşünülerek okunması gereken bir kitap.
Kitapta 47 başlık altında farklı konulara değinilmiş. Konular arasında ceza verme yetkisinden tutun da delillere kadar, işkenceden ölüm cezasının sorgulanmasına kadar, baskıdan, zorbalıktan tutun da silah taşıma hakkına kadar birçok konu yorumlanmış. Bazen anlaşılmayan noktalar olsa da ufuk açan, yok artık bunu hiç düşünmemiştim(!) dedirten bahisler de oldukça fazla.
Bu bahislerden bazı örnekler vermek gerekirse;
Aflar hakkında: “Cezalar ne denli ılımlı olursa aflara o denli az zorunluluk duyulur. Af yetkisi bir erdemdir. Ancak bu erdemin, cezaların ılımlı ve yargılamanın düzenli, kurallara uygun ve çabuk olduğu bir yazılı hukuktan çıkartılıp atılması gerekir.”
Kolektif yargılama hakkında: “Yargıç sayısı ne denli çok olursa yasaların çiğnenme tehlikesi o denli az olur. Kendi içinde birbirini denetleyen mahkeme üyelerinden birinin satılmış olması çok zordur.”
Silah taşıma hakkında: “Yasalar sadece suç işleme eğilimi olmayan insanları silahtan arındırmaktadır. Buna karşılık en kutsal yasaları çiğnemeye hazır olan canilere silah vermektedir.”
Ölüm cezası hakkında: “İnsanın ruhu/zekası üzerinde en büyük etkiyi yapan cezanın ağırlığı değil süresidir.” (Beccaria ölüm cezasını ilk sorgulayan ve faydasız olduğuna inanan düşünürlerdendir.)
Burada yazının boyutunu aşıp yazıyı sıkıcılaştırmayalım. Ancak kendi çağını aşan ve günümüz hukukçularına hala mesaj veren bu kitabı, özgür düşünmek, sorgulayıcı olmak ve ceza felsefesini anlamak isteyenler okumalıdır diyelim.

un must-read per il 99.9% dei politici a livello mondiale

Published in 1764, Beccaria's "On Crimes and Punishments" was an influential treatise of the Italian Enlightenment, influential in England, France, and among the United States Founding Fathers. In fact, in Donald S. Lutz's review of the political literature of 1760-1805, he finds that Beccaria was the sixth most frequently cited thinker, cited most frequently in the 1780s, and most often by Anti-Federalists.

Beccaria argued strongly against excessive punishments - including against capital punishment - arguing that punishments should be as public, timely, and mild as possible, proportional to the crime, and determined by the law. All punishments not meeting these requirements constitute acts of violence against the individual and are a breach of natural law. Beccaria's objective was to systematize criminal justice, make it actually just, and avoid the arbitrary, inhumane, and excessive punishments (including torture) prevalent in Europe in his time.

Having read Montesquieu earlier this year, it was interesting to see how much Beccaria relied on or responded to arguments made by Montesquieu. Beccaria was also influenced by Rousseau and other thinkers of his time. His treatise is a generally easy read, mostly because of its briefness, though not a very engaging read. Yet its significance in criminal justice reforms (including in the United States) is historically important so I'm glad I read the book. I look forward to learning more about Beccaria's influence in the American Founding by reading John Bessler's "The Birth of American Law: An Italian Philosopher and the American Revolution."

1764'te kaleme alınmış ve günümüz ceza hukuku ilkelerini inci gibi işlemiş ve o zamanki değerlendirmeleriyle de günümüze ışık tutmuş bir eseri bugün bitirdim.

"Hukuk iyi ve adil olanı bilme sanatıdır. (eski roma hukukunda) ...Zira politika, iyi yönetmek ve insanların değişmez duygularını birlikte yaşatmak sanatından başka bir şey değildir. "

"Toplum serpilip büyüdükçe, üyelerinden her biri bütünün çok küçük bir parçası olur. Eğer yasalar onu destekleyip güçlendirmeye özen göstermezlerse, cumhuriyetçi sivil toplumcu duygu aynı oranda azalmış olur. İnsan vücutları gibi, toplumların da gelişirken gidebilecekleri belli sınırları vardır. Ekonomileri altüst olmadan toplumlar bu sınırların ötesine geçemez. "

"Suçları önleyen en önemli frenlerden biri, cezaların ağırlığı değil, cezaların kaçınılmaz olmalarıdır." yorumumca; hukuk ve yargı iyi işlemezse dolaylı yoldan suçu özendirmiş olur.

"Ruhumuz geçici, ama aşırı acıların şiddetine karşı zamana ve sürekli üzüntülere oranla daha çok dirençlidir. "

"Biliyorum ki, insanın kendi ruhunun duygularını geliştirmesi bir sanattır. Bu sanat öğrenimle elde edilir. "

"Kara bilgisizlikten felsefeye, bunun sonucu olarak da zorbalıktan özgürlüğe geçişte bütün bir kuşak, yerine geçtiği kuşağın mutluluğu için kurban edilmiştir."

"Son olarak suçları önlemenin en güvenilir, ama en zor yolunun öğrenimi (eğitimi) yetkinleştirmek olduğunu belirtmek gerekir... Bu konu, yönetimin niteliğine ve özüne sıkı sıkıya bağlıdır."

Excelente libro introductorio al derecho penal, la proporcionalidad es un punto esencial abordado en el dichoso libro, a memoria de todos los estados, ningún delito debe recibir una pena mayor al delito cometido

Es verdad que es progresista y súper humanista (más aún si lees la comparación que viene al final entre él y Lardizábal, su equivalente "progre" en España) pero lo tienes que poner en su contexto porque si no al leer argumentos como "hay que quitar la pena de muerte pero porque es mucho más ejemplificante y útil condenar a cadena perpetua y trabajos forzados" te quedas un poco tiesa. Pero claro, cuando te explica lo que había hasta el momento... Y oye, contra la tortura sí está radicalmente en contra sin proponer sustitutivos ni nada. Un tipo majo.

Está muy bien escrito, es interesante y no se hace pesado en ningún momento PERO sí hay que decir también que Beccaria un poco (muy) prepotente porque todo el rato esta diciendo que posiblemente esté salvando a la humanidad y que los demás son idiotas. Y tiene razón. Pero no hace falta que lo digas cada cinco párrafos; ya se entiende.

Por último, el texto de Voltaire también es súper interesante y lleno de referencias a casos históricos reales que usa para sus argumentos y, realmente, si no hubiesen pasado 400 años (ayuda a disociar)... Uf. Pobre gente, de verdad.

Ladies and gentlemen on this occasion a book has been read, which is one of the bases of Current Law, and that has helped so much to shape it. The publisher I have read is that of the volumes of the newspaper Sol, which specialized in publishing short books. Soon a review of Pedro Antonio de Alarcón's "Clavo" will be written, which he also published for this publisher. To write this review (on Instagram it is very changed) has helped me from a debate, which I have had on Facebook with A.T., as I said in my review of "The Light of Gabriel" by Thomas E. https://www.goodreads.com/review/show... I said, that in this review A.T. was going to help me. Much of the information he has given me is his, and deserves to take credit, particularly in the case of the clarification of Le Barre's crime. It should be noted that the Prologue of this edition, which I have read, is very ideologized, and is very partial. Apart from this, I only use A.T.'s initials to protect him from hypothetical criticism, because we know that ours is not the hegemonic discourse, and that very possibly we were criticized, for what it is going to be written. So I trust, that in this way the possible anger, and criticism will fall on me. Of course I have invited Mr. A.T. to make an account at Goodreads, and I have asked him to join The Catholic Book Club. This review will be in four languages English, Spanish, Italian, and Polish. The author's intention is good, since Beccaria is responsible for an attempt to eliminate the death penalty (something legitimate, and fair at least in Europe, and although I am very critical of my continent in that I am in favor of Beccaria), such as torture. It is a pity that, despite everything, despite his good intentions, I have to be critical of this book. The positive thing is that it is a book, which reads nothing. It didn't take me two hours to read it. The flaw it has is that it is very cumbersome, and it is misunderstood. Beccaria's dissertations unfortunately make it difficult to understand the book. Not being easy to read for the current user. The author's idea (as noted above) is a good one. After the execution of Damiens (as the prologue of the book says, which is very tendentious), and here my colleague A.T. intervenes that regarding the execution of Damiens, frustrated regicidal, who tried to attempt on the life of Louis XV with a non-sharp stiletto A.T. says something, which I already knew, but I did not say in my Instagram review Louis XV wanted to pardon Damiens but the "parliaments" were relentless (it should be said, that curiously it was the members of Parliament who incited Damiens to attempt on the life of the King, because the King wanted to suppress them. Something, which at the end of his reign he achieved, but they were again replaced by his grandson Louis XVI. Regarding Louis XV he is actually the main protector of the enlightened whom he used to cover his adulteries with Madame Pompadour Jean Poissons, who when he stopped attracting the lust of the King carried out a work of pimping, and sought out younger lovers for the King. This was done in the famous Deer Park. . As the Jesuits denounced him for this they were dissolved by Choiseul (an enlightened minister of the confidence of Madame de Pompadour). Be done is confirmed by Ramiro de Maeztu https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/5... https://www.goodreads.com/author/show... . Not only that, but they fomented a persecution in the Catholic kingdoms of Portugal with Pomball, Spain with Carlos III (a King, who despite having good press did a lot of stupid things, as I saw yesterday in a video of Patricio Lons on YouTube), and was highly criticized by Marcelino Menéndez Pelayo https://www.goodreads.com/author/show... for his undesirable friendships. On Carlos III this points A.T " With Charles III, who came to reign in 1759, Spain opened fully to the European Enlightenment, and with greater discretion to anti-religious and anticlerical currents. In this field there was a tremendous setback when Charles III, in 1767, expelled the Jesuits, also achieving that Pope Clement XI dissolved the order in 1773. They would also end up being expelled from the rest of Catholic countries (Portugal, France, Naples, Parma ...) thanks to the anticlerical campaigns of Gallicans, Jansenists and enlightened anticlericals such as Diderot https://www.goodreads.com/author/show... , d'Alembert https://www.goodreads.com/author/show... and Voltaire https://www.goodreads.com/author/show... . The expulsion of the Jesuits had disastrous effects on science in Catholic countries. One of the "great legacies" of the Enlightenment. It is important to note that the Jesuits were the elite of European science. The scientific achievements of the sons of St. Ignatius of Loyola are innumerable, mentioning all their discoveries is beyond the purpose of this chapter, but a historian describes the contribution of the Jesuits to eighteenth-century science: "They have contributed to the development of the pendulum of clocks, pantographs, barometers, reflection telescopes, microscopes, magnetism, to optics, to electricity. The Jesuits looked before anyone else at the colored bands of Jupiter, the Andromeda Nebula and the rings of the planet Saturn. They theorized, independently of Harvey, about blood circulation. They theoretically formulated the possibility of air navigation, the effects of the moon on the tides, and the wavy nature of light. They made maps of the southern hemisphere, established symbolic logic, introduced plus and minus signs into Italian mathematics. All these were achievements of the Jesuits and scientists of the stature of Fermat, Huygens, Leibniz and Newton counted on the Jesuits as their most precious correspondents." On the Jansenists, and here I speak again, they generally found refuge in the French Parliaments. Although it is a bit long A.T. mentions the contributions of the Jesuits to science, and other tasks these Jesuits were welcomed in the uncatholic kingdoms of Prussia, and Russia by the enlightened Frederick II, and Catherine II with which their expulsion impoverished the science of the West, and prepared the emancipation of Latin America, due to the discontent of those countries by the suppression of the Order. With regard to the Enlightenment mentioned by A.T., they do not seem to me the worst, despite the malice, and the slanderous impulse of Voltaire. Some like Helvetius https://www.goodreads.com/author/show... it was too radical, even for these people, since it went from deism to atheism, and even Voltaire, who died devoured by his own excrement, had to stop his feet. Meslier https://www.goodreads.com/author/show... appears in the book "Monsters of Reason" by Rino Cammilleri https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/1... (of this book, which has been so decisive in my life I want to make a criticism in conditions, because the reviews are in my opinion unfairly low). The Abbé Raynal https://www.goodreads.com/author/show... , and who fostered the Black Legend Spain with his lies was one of the architects of the Spanish-American emancipation, bringing misery to Latin America. s for the Le Barre Trial this is what A.T. says: "Voltaire grossly and slanderously manipulated the torture of the knight de La Barre. It is that you always write the same topics and I always have to repeat again and again the reverse of things, but I tell you about the famous anti-Semitic, anticlerical philosopher and idol of the progressives Voltaire; the Chevalier de la Barre affair was made by Voltaire "a symbol of religious and clerical oppression". However, Michael Burleigh's Earthly Power shows on page 47 the Volterian fraud. The knight de la Barre was indeed handed over to torture for allegedly desecrating a crucifix. But Voltaire is silent that the real reason for the judicial nonsense was the animosity of a lay official, and the parliament of Paris had confirmed the sentence to counteract the reputation of anticlericalism that had accumulated with the vengeful persecution of the Jesuits. Voltaire carefully concealed the strenuous efforts of the French clergy and papal nuncio for pardoning La Barre. Voltaire was a sycophant of militaristic despots such as Frederick the Great and Catherine of Russia. When the latter invaded Poland in 1768 the despicable and servile Voltaire began a propaganda campaign to deceive European public opinion into believing that the invasion of Poland was to defend religious freedom. With a pair. Diderot three-quarters of the same. They would not be the last intellectuals to praise a "progressive" Russian despotism. To be seriously informed of the vicissitudes of the enlightened I recommend that you read Earthly Power by Michael Burleigh; by the way, this book is worth reading just to see how Voltaire grossly and slanderously manipulated the torture of the knight de La Barre; the Chevalier de la Barre affair was made by Voltaire "a symbol of religious and clerical oppression". However Earthly Powers: The Clash of Religion and Politics in Europe, from the French Revolution to the Great War by Michael Burleigh https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/2... https://www.goodreads.com/author/show... shown on page 47 the Volterian fraud. The knight de la Barre was indeed handed over to torture for allegedly desecrating a crucifix. But Voltaire is silent that the real reason for the judicial nonsense was the animosity of a lay official, and the parliament of Paris had confirmed the sentence to counteract the reputation of anticlericalism that had accumulated with the vengeful persecution of the Jesuits. Voltaire carefully concealed the strenuous efforts of the French clergy and the papal nuncio to pardon La Barre.
. Some enlightened of which Voltaire was a part. They asked him (Beccaria) to write a book. What it does is complete what Montesquieu had already outlined in "The Spirit of the Laws" https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/1... https://www.goodreads.com/author/show... . In fact, Montesquieu is mentioned several times in this text. The problem is that Beccaria starts from a wrong conception of the human being, and is surrounded by bad company, and this can be seen in the text. As a good enlightened man thinks that man is not evil by nature (he has been influenced by Voltaire, Helvetius, Montesquieu, and Rosseau. "El Emilio" is quoted https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/3... https://www.goodreads.com/author/show... about Mr. Rosseau's edifying life, I ask you to take a look at the first chapter of Paul Johnson's "Intellectuals" https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/5... https://www.goodreads.com/author/show... which I will use for my critique of Henrik's "An Enemy of the People." Ibsen https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/2... . He took the opportunity to express my mourning, and grief over the death of Paul Johnson, and express my best wishes to his family, friends, and fans. May God have him in his glory). This makes Hobbes amend. https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/9... https://www.goodreads.com/author/show... that defends the opposite, and that advocates the total power of the State against the individual, and that this more centralized (on this subject, as almost always virtue is at the middle point). There is a criticism of the author to the rigorism of Carpzovious https://www.goodreads.com/author/show... , Caro, and Farraccio (it is curious, that he only gets Catholic judges, and does not get the cruel judge Jeffries of England). It tends to the idea of the architect God that God has created the world, but does not intervene in it. What he advocates is to reduce the influence of the religious, and that these have less weight. Something very disturbing is that natural law was loaded, and it is society that decides what is right, or wrong, reminding us of Locke https://www.goodreads.com/author/show... , as if a Parliament were not wrong, or the popular will could not make unjust laws. The serious thing is that something ceased to be unfair depending on the whims of a society, which can be manipulated by oligarchic elites (as is the case in these times in Spain there are attempts to decriminalize pedophilia, and zoophilia by a party, not to mention abortion, and euthanasia, which have expanded, and is the result of these policies). Beccaria makes another mistake, and that is to idealize, following Confucius https://www.goodreads.com/author/show... (a misunderstood Confucianism) the times before Christianity. On this A.T. has to say "by Christian influence in 365 it was forbidden to condemn the prisoners to be devoured by animals in the circus, Pope Damaso condemned torture and atrocious penalties in 382, so for example St. Jerome repudiated in his letters the executions of adulteras ordered by the emperors. Pope Nicholas abolished torture in Bulgaria in 866, Gregory VII banned the burning of witches in Denmark. Although many representatives of the early Church were convinced abolitionists (the apologist Quadrato, Tertullian, Origen, Lactantius, Pope Damaso, Pope Nicholas, the Parabolan monks of Milan) and thought that it was not enough to protect the lives of the innocent. During the fourth century the Milanese monks and Archbishop Ambrose managed to successfully paralyze the capital executions ordered by the Roman magistrates in Milan, but beware one thing is capital punishment in the fourth century and quite another capital punishment in a democratic country with judges and prosecutors elected by the people. "Empires of cruelty" https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/6... The bleaker aspect of Rome and Greece, and how Modernity has traced it on an industrial scale through The Debate "Read more about Pope Nicholas the Great's letter to the Bulgarians in 866 and the prohibition of torture". Here I speak again. One could quote the letter to Diognetus, or how they ended the gladiatorial battles, or how the Council of Trent forbids duels. I also mentioned other books such as The Rise of Christianity https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/3... Bearing False Witness: Debunking Centuries of Anti-Catholic History by Rodney Stark https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/2... books such as "Dominion" by Tom Holland https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/4... https://www.goodreads.com/author/show... or the novels of Gene Wolfe, either because it tells us about what the world was like before Christ in Classical Greece, or what would have happened, if Christ had not incarnated in the saga of Severian https://www.goodreads.com/series/4147... https://www.goodreads.com/series/4945... https://www.goodreads.com/author/show... Not realizing that Christianity has continued with the Greco-Roman worldview implying, that with the empire there were hardly any death penalties. He seems to ignore the condemnation of Socrates https://www.goodreads.com/author/show... (without showing us the pettiness, quarrels, and fratricidal hatreds of the Greek polis, and how they outlawed their best leaders), and how the Greeks took religious offenses. The criticism of Aristarchus of Samos is https://www.goodreads.com/author/show... the beginning of Galileo's error (or the banishment of Anaxagoras https://www.goodreads.com/author/show...). He says that there were no duels, but in the Iliad there were only duels https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/1... (the gladiatorial combats are the Christians, who put an end to them see the case of San Telemachus). In fact, gladiatorial combats are that, and their origin is for funerary themes. Not to mention beheadings, and the death given to parricides (and the infanticides, and abortions that existed, not to mention how non-Romans were treated by handing them over to wild beasts, drowning them, or crucifying them). In fact, he proposes something terrifying that blows up the idea of equality that he claims to defend, and that is that he wants to reinstate slavery. Even if it is temporary, first-class citizens would be created, and second-class people, those who had violated the morality of the State would not have rights (so we would find ourselves facing a mild totalitarianism). He is constantly telling us that the evil of these times, although the morals were affected at this time (it is still curious how in the eighteenth century wars increased, although none was as lethal as the war of the 30 years, racism, anti-Semitism, slavery, how the nobles practiced zoophilia and how the enlightened themselves took among them, neither, despite Laplace science advances a lot, as Professor Manuel Alfonseca argues https://www.goodreads.com/author/show... Marat already says it, when he executed Lavoisier "The revolution does not need wise men" not to mention the misogynistic, and classist character of the revolution itself, that what killed the most were peasants, and bourgeois, repressed the nascent labor movement, and fomented a genocide in which 200,000 people died, ending in a personal dictatorship). Crimes against society are reinforced. It promotes a society more interested in money, and more materialistic (it should be remembered according to the prologue, that Beccaria has been compared to Adam Smith https://www.goodreads.com/author/show... , and had its notions of economics). He makes a blatant praise of kings whose morals leave much to be desired like Frederick II. We see a blatant preference for Protestant countries. Forget to say that in England you were executed for stealing a piece of bread, even though they abolished torture. He says that Isabel Petrovna has done it, but the truth is that Catherine II executed Pugachev, so that influence was not very long-lasting. He ignored the Swedish case. Another terrifying thin

En el momento de su aparición, en 1764, De los delitos y de las penas conoció un éxito de escándalo.

En los años siguientes el libro fue traducido a los principales idiomas europeos; la versión castellana, de 1774, fue inmediatamente prohibida por la Inquisición y tuvo que circular clandestinamente en el país. El éxito de Cesare Beccaria se debió fundamentalmente a que supo resumir las inquietudes centrales de la época en torno a unas prácticas judiciales que ofendían a los sentimientos humanitarios y a los principios racionalistas del siglo.

La obra constituye, en suma, un apasionado alegato contra la pena de muerte, la tortura y, en general, la desproporción entre los delitos cometidos y los castigos aplicados. La presente edición -preparada por Juan Antonio Delval- incluye el extenso comentario que publicó Voltaire en 1776 y que lleva hasta sus últimas consecuencias la enérgica protesta con que la Ilustración acompañó su crítica de la situación existente y sus propuestas de fundamentar el derecho penal sobre nuevas bases. Para la sociedad contemporánea, en la que la tortura, la pena de muerte, los malos tratos carcelarios y la violación de los derechos humanos no han desaparecido, estos documentos continúan teniendo una escalofriante actualidad.

>> De los delitos y de las penas es un tratado fundamental sobre derecho penal y justicia, en el que Cesare Beccaria defiende la proporcionalidad de las penas, la abolición de la tortura y la pena de muerte, y la necesidad de un sistema judicial basado en la razón y la legalidad.

Publicado en pleno siglo XVIII, el libro representa un hito en el pensamiento ilustrado y sigue siendo una referencia clave en la teoría del derecho. Con un enfoque racionalista, Beccaria argumenta que el castigo debe servir como prevención y no como venganza, estableciendo principios que influirían en la legislación penal moderna.

Probabilmente uno dei testi più straordinari che ls temperie illuminista abbia prodotto. Con analisi ragionata, Beccaria costruisce un autentico compendio giuridico in cui analizza temi quali colpa, condanna, pena, ripercussioni sociali e, in maniera modernissima per l'epoca (e tuttora attuale), su tortura e pena di morte. Gli antichi assunti punitivi vengono completamente ribaltati in nome di normative del tutto nuove, che non traggono origine da pulsioni o impulsi, ma da quella scintilla razionale che, più di altre caratteristiche, dovrebbe contraddistinguere l'essere umano.

Una straordinaria e interessantissima opera che racchiude importanti riflessioni sul valore della pena, le leggi dello stato, l’uso della pena di morte, il sistema giudiziario e lo stato di diritto. Cesare Beccaria, uno dei massimi esponenti dell’illuminismo italiano e milanese, con questo testo ha contribuito a creare le basi su cui si fonda la nostra società.

"Pour que tout châtiment ne soit pas un acte de violence exercé par un seul ou par plusieurs contre un citoyen, il doit essentiellement être public, prompt, nécessaire, proportionné au délit, dicté par les lois, et le moins rigoureux possible dans les circonstances données."

Un essai que j'ai lu dans le cadre de mes études de droit et qui a toute sa place dans notre système juridique actuel. Enormément d'idées des Lumières se retrouvent aujourd'hui empreintes dans nos lois, et c'était super intéressant de pouvoir lire Beccaria qui a fortement influencé notre système de droit pénal français (et pas que). Chaque chapitre apporte une idée juridique/politique (sur la peine, sur l'éducation d'une société, sur le procès etc). Intéressant de comparer la société arbitraire passée et autoritaire qui frappait la France et même l'Europe, avec les idées/théories modernes de Beccaria et notre système d'aujourd'hui.

Je recommande !

Sobre as penas de morte: "é a guerra que se declara a um cidadão pelo país, que considera necessária ou útil a eliminação desse cidadão. Se eu provar, contudo, que a morte nada tem de útil ou de necessário, ganharei a causa da humanidade."