Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient

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More than three decades after its first publication, Edward Said's groundbreaking critique of the West's historical, cultural, and political perceptions of the East has become a modern classic.

In this wide-ranging, intellectually vigorous study, Said traces the origins of "orientalism" to the centuries-long period during which Europe dominated the Middle and Near East and, from its position of power, defined "the orient" simply as "other than" the occident. This entrenched view continues to dominate western ideas and, because it does not allow the East to represent itself, prevents true understanding. Essential, and still eye-opening, Orientalism remains one of the most important books written about our divided world.

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First published January 1,1978

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About the author

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(Arabic Profile إدوارد سعيد)
Edward Wadie Said was a professor of literature at Columbia University, a public intellectual, and a founder of the academic field of postcolonial studies. A Palestinian American born in Mandatory Palestine, he was a citizen of the United States by way of his father, a U.S. Army veteran.

Educated in the Western canon, at British and American schools, Said applied his education and bi-cultural perspective to illuminating the gaps of cultural and political understanding between the Western world and the Eastern world, especially about the Israeli-Palestinian conflict in the Middle East; his principal influences were Antonio Gramsci, Frantz Fanon, Aimé Césaire, Michel Foucault, and Theodor Adorno.

As a cultural critic, Said is known for the book Orientalism (1978), a critique of the cultural representations that are the bases of Orientalism—how the Western world perceives the Orient. Said's model of textual analysis transformed the academic discourse of researchers in literary theory, literary criticism, and Middle-Eastern studies—how academics examine, describe, and define the cultures being studied. As a foundational text, Orientalism was controversial among the scholars of Oriental Studies, philosophy, and literature.

As a public intellectual, Said was a controversial member of the Palestinian National Council, because he publicly criticized Israel and the Arab countries, especially the political and cultural policies of Muslim régimes who acted against the national interests of their peoples. Said advocated the establishment of a Palestinian state to ensure equal political and human rights for the Palestinians in Israel, including the right of return to the homeland. He defined his oppositional relation with the status quo as the remit of the public intellectual who has “to sift, to judge, to criticize, to choose, so that choice and agency return to the individual” man and woman.

In 1999, with his friend Daniel Barenboim, Said co-founded the West–Eastern Divan Orchestra, based in Seville, which comprises young Israeli, Palestinian, and Arab musicians. Besides being an academic, Said also was an accomplished pianist, and, with Barenboim, co-authored the book Parallels and Paradoxes: Explorations in Music and Society (2002), a compilation of their conversations about music. Edward Said died of leukemia on 25 September 2003.

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April 25,2025
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Obviously this is a must read, which has been much drawn on and critiqued by later post/anti-colonial writers. I have just read the copious notes I made when I read it in 2007 (sort of ironic that I read a westerner's gloss rather than re-reading the original!?) and noted some points of particular interest...

John of Segovia proposed a conference with Islam designed to produce mass conversion 'even if it were to last ten years it would be less expensive and damaging than war'

To me this is a perfect example of the assumption that in an 'objective' 'rational' comparison Islam/the Orient will be found inferior to Christianity/the West. It sounds absurd, yet the same attitude is reproduced constantly, including by mainstream feminists. I think non-Muslim/Arab/'Oriental' folk should put the question to ourselves whenever considering or discussing Islam or the Middle East: 'am I being John of Segovia?'

European Orientalism produced a very rich sophisticated body of knowledge (Said stresses at the outset that his text is not about comparing this construct to reality) that produced ideas - it is the corporate institution for dealing with the Middle East/Arab/Muslim world (henceforth, problematically, 'the Orient') - politically useful to European imperialist powers (henceforth, problematically, and including the USA, 'the West'). Insofar as it studied Oriental texts, it interpreted them according to sweeping generalisations, never the human particular. The words of an ancient poet would be used as the foundation for foreign policy.

Visitors to the actual geographical Middle East were disappointed not to find the world described in classic orientalist texts, and interpreted this as the (further, because orientalist dogma starts from an assumption of faded glory) degeneration of the Orient! Confrontation with reality has not disrupted the othering construction of orientalism; everything is digested and processed by it.

For example, by 1955 the Orient described by 17th 18th century texts could not be recognised anywhere. Yet since one of the dogmas of orientalism is that the Orient cannot change, this new and strange place is out of order, full of pathological 'dis-orientals' and, I might cheekily offer, 'rogue states' which 'we have lost'. National liberation movements shattered the image of passive, fatalistic subject populations, but they were replaced with the image of 'extremists' who were not true to their real passive fatalistic natures. Anticolonial movements are interpreted as insults to Western democracy.

H.A.R Gibb argued that Islam is fundamentally flawed, yet cannot change. Any attempt to change it is a betrayal.

Orientalism ignores class interests, political circumstances and economic factors. There is only the unchanging oriental character to consider.

To conquer the Orient is to liberate it, because 'Arabs, especially Muslims know nothing about liberty & Islam is structurally favourable to fundamentalism' (this is the argument made by new-atheist critics like Dawkins and Grayling)

Latent orientalism: the distillation of ideas about the Orient & orientals eg sensuality, femininity (Said points out that orientalism is a masculinist perspective), despotism, passivity, indifference, inaccuracy, backwardness, is distinguished from manifest orientalism: stated views about oriental history, society, literature, land and identifications with other philosophies. Any change in knowledge of orientalism takes place in the latter category, never deconstructing the former.

American orientalism is even more reductive, with none of the imaginative investment of European orientalism, but with the same cultural hostility and imperial projects. Arabic is studied for policy objectives.

The liberal veneer: 'we' study 'others' to get to know them, understand their cultures, so we allow them to represent themselves (within the confining space of orientalism)

Principle dogmas of orientalism:
1. The West is rational, developed, humane, superior while the Orient is underdeveloped, aberrant, inferior
2. Abstracts are always preferable to direct evidence since Orientals cannot be trusted
3. The Orient is uniform and unchanging, incapable of self definition, and the generalised and systematic vocabulary of orientalism used to describe it is entirely objective.
4. The Orient is to be feared, pacified by research and development, preferably occupied.

The central myth is the 'arrested development of the semites'; Western power enables the reproduction of this myth.

Methodological failures of orientalism cannot be accounted for by saying the real Orient is different from orientalist portrayals or that orientalists, being Westerners, can have no inner sense of what the Orient is all about: Orientals are now educated in native lands in colonial founded underfunded universities with no good libraries and too many students. The USA is seen as the source of all learning, so students go there & learn orientalist dogma.

Said asks: How does one represent another culture? What is another culture? Is the notion of a distinct culture race/religion/civilization useful or does it always get involved in self-congratulation or hostility & aggression? Construction of identity (never natural & stable) is bound up with power and powerlessness in each society. For example, in Shalimar the Clown Rushdie presents a complex and shifting picture of religious identity in Kashmir; Islam is complicated by context and is not at all the same everywhere. Cultures are so inter-related and interdependent that unitary/simply delineated descriptions of their individuality are junk.

Scholars deny, suppress or distort the context of power that produces their systems of thought to maintain the fiction of scholarly disinterest (now we acknowledge and apologise for them, but proceed with our imperialism)

Western civilization is an ideological fiction, implying detached superiority of a handful of values & ideas meaningless outside the history of conquest immigration travel & mingling of peoples that gave western nations their present mixed identities. The USA for example is a palimpsest of different races & cultures sharing problematic histories of conquest, exterminations and major cultural & political achievements.

Said's aim is not to (paraphrased:) dissipate difference – the constitutive role of national & cultural differences in relations between people can't be denied - but to challenge the notion that difference implies hostility and the frozen, reified set of opposed essences & adversarial knowledge built out of these things. We need new way of conceiving the separations & conflicts that stimulated generations of hostility war & imperial control.

'Animosities & inequalities represent not an eternal order, but a historical experience whose end may be at hand.'
April 25,2025
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Edward W Said - Orientalismo. Representações Ocidentais do Oriente
Orientalismo de Edward Said é um livro sobre as representações que o ocidente faz do “Oriente”, tema que o autor analisa em três dimensões – numa perspectiva histórica, uma outra literária e de filologia e uma última política. São dimensões diferentes que Said entrelaça e entre as quais estabelece pontes. Sendo ele professor de literatura comparada e especialista em filologia, como decorre do texto, dá mais ênfase a estes aspetos, o que me parece excessivo para que um leigo o possa acompanhar. Contudo, nesta abordagem que seguramente faz com adequação e profundidade, a limitação é seguramente minha. Porém o que mais me interessa são os lados político e histórica que no contexto do livro me parecem ficar demasiado perdidos.
Quando o autor aborda o “orientalismo” pelo lado político e histórico o texto ganha uma outra vitalidade e capacidade de agarrar o leitor, e fá-lo com tal intensidade que fico com curiosidade em ler outras obras suas como “A Questão da Palestina” ou “Cultura e Imperialismo”.
Em Orientalismo a questão essencial para Edward Said é a forma como o ocidente vê o oriente, e de que forma essa visão deturpa a realidade mas também inquina o que o ocidente conhece do “Oriente”, atribuindo-lhe características que ele não tem. Diz o autor – quem observa, o que observa não corresponde ao observado. Diz ainda que este erro de paralaxe resulta de preconceitos, e que estes resultam em novos preconceitos dificultado o conhecimento da realidade quanto mais se aprofunda esta abordagem de conhecimento.
A leitura que Said faz da realidade está correta, mas tirando preconceitos óbvios o autor deveria ser mais prolixo em nomeá-los. E este aspecto parece-me importante porque a distância entre quem observa e o que é observado existe sempre. Quantos estrangeiros como Henry Fielding; Ramón del Valle-Inclán; Richard Francis Burton; Miguel de Unamuno; Edith Wharton; Johann Wolfgang von Goethe; Charles Dickens; Hans Christian Andersen escreveram sobre os portugueses descrevendo-os como um povo dado à saudade, à melancolia e fatalismo, à espiritualidade e à introspecção. Estavam errados? Enquanto povo damos estas impressões a quem nos visita, ou são injustas estas observações? É óbvio que os observados têm sempre uma opinião enviesada sobre si. Empresas e organizações quando pretendem uma avaliação isenta não a procuram fora do seu círculo interno?
A relação entre “Nós e os Outros” é sempre uma relação complicada. Numas coisas vemo-nos piores do que nos descrevem, mas o saldo é habitualmente mais positivo para o nosso lado. Eu sou português, sou melhor que os “outros”. Sou do Porto, sou melhor que os do outro lado do rio. Sou melhor, assim me vejo, que o meu vizinho de cima apesar do mesmo estar em quase tudo um nível acima de mim. Porém, será que isto faz de mim xenófobo, racista, narcisista ou apenas humano? Nunca somos o que achamos que somos e muito menos quem gostaríamos de ser! E é isto que Said não colocou em equação. Nunca somos o que gostaríamos de ser nem provavelmente como os outros nos veem. Somos apenas humanos.
Para Edward Said Orientalismo significa a forma como o ocidente vê e descreve o oriente. Partindo deste pressuposto Edward Said descreve-nos de que forma o conceito foi evoluindo ao longo da história, que transformações teve e como foi transformado e moldado em diferentes contextos por múltiplas figuras que sobre ele se pronunciaram desde a antiguidade clássica mas de forma mais incisiva nos séculos XIX e XX.



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Said argumenta que as primeiras noções de "Oriente" já aparecem na Grécia e na Roma antiga, onde o Oriente (principalmente a Pérsia) era visto como o oposto, uma região exótica e desconhecida, mas em simultâneo uma ameaça ao mundo greco-romano (obras de Heródoto e as descrições das Guerras Persas, começam a delinear uma imagem do Oriente como o "Outro".


Durante a Idade Média, o contato entre o Ocidente e o Oriente intensificou-se durante as Cruzadas e com o comércio com o mundo islâmico. Nesta representação, para além do perigo do outro, perigo que foi amplificado quando os preconceitos religiosos e culturais manifestaram a sua influencia e os muçulmanos eram retratados como inimigos da cristandade (escritos de S. Tomas de Aquino e os cronistas das cruzadas). Com o renascimento as trocas comerciais aumentaram de intensidade e com elas as trocas culturais e uma mais profunda curiosidade pela cultura oriental (relatos de Marco Polo e de outros viajantes europeus).
Com a expansão dos impérios e as fronteiras coloniais (sec XVII e XVIII), o conceito de orientalismo começou a cristalizar no ocidente como uma disciplina académica. Nesse período, o Oriente e particularmente o que se relacionava com o Oriente Médio, a Índia ou a China começou a ser estudado de forma sistemática, mas sempre dentro de uma estrutura de dominação imperial. O conhecimento produzido sobre o Oriente servia para facilitar a dominação colonial (Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle; William Jones). O século XIX marca a consolidação do orientalismo como uma disciplina e temática académica à medida que os impérios europeus (especialmente o britânico e o francês) intensificavam sua presença no Oriente. Durante esse período, o orientalismo tornou-se mais científico e institucionalizado, e figuras como filólogos, historiadores e arqueólogos dedicaram-se ao estudo do Oriente, mas sempre dentro da lógica do poder imperial. O Oriente era visto como algo a ser "classificado", "civilizado" e "controlado" (campanha Egípcia de Napoleão Bonaparte; Ernest Renan; Silvestre de Sacy; Edward William Lane).
No século XX, o orientalismo continuou a ser uma ferramenta poderosa da política imperial dos estados, mesmo com o declínio formal dos impérios europeus após a Primeira Guerra Mundial. As representações do Oriente, especialmente no cinema, na literatura e nos meios de comunicação de massa, perpetuavam estereótipos sobre os povos orientais, agora vistos sob a lente do "subdesenvolvimento" e da necessidade de modernização ocidental. Ao mesmo tempo, movimentos nacionalistas e de resistência nos países orientais começavam a emergir, questionando essas representações e lutando pela descolonização (T.E. Lawrence; Gertrude Bell; obras como "As Mil e Uma Noites" foram adaptadas ao cinema para criar uma imagem de fantasia e exotismo que influenciou gerações de ocidentais, desde Hollywood até os romances de aventura).
Com o fim dos impérios e os movimentos anticoloniais, e em especial a partir da segunda metade do século XX, houve um crescente questionamento do orientalismo, à medida que os países anteriormente colonizados se tornavam independentes e os acadêmicos pós-coloniais começaram a criticar as representações ocidentais do Oriente. Said coloca-se como parte desse movimento de busca e desafio às premissas e ideologias que sustentaram o orientalismo por séculos (Said; Frantz Fanon; Aimé Césaire; Albert Memmi).
Segundo said, o orientalismo, segundo Said, resulta de um processo evolutivo no qual o Ocidente, ao longo dos séculos, construiu e refinou uma visão distorcida do Oriente, cada vez mais institucionalizada e ligada ao poder imperial, um processo pelo qual não se representava apenas um oriente que dessa forma ficava cada vez mais moldado à dominação imperial.

Para Said o termo orientalismo representa um discurso no sentido foucaultiano, ou seja, um conjunto de práticas, representações e conceitos que moldam a forma como o Oriente é conhecido e entendido, e o poder é exercido pelo de forma a justificar o colonialismo e o imperialismo ocidentais. O oriental é visto como o outro, alguém, um local oposto ao ocidente, um lugar de exotismo, irracionalidade, atraso e despotismo, em contraste com o Ocidente. Para Said estas representações são simplificações distorcidas que negam a complexidade e a diversidade das culturas orientais.
Neste processo de descrição, há o poder de controlar o que se descreve o que de acordo com Michel Foucault é uma forma de poder. O ocidente ao descrever o seu oposto, o oriente, controla e domina o conhecimento que produz. Este poder legitimado pela descrição desempenhou um papel importante no processo de colonização (Médio Oriente, Ásia e Norte da África(.
Para Said, esta visão deturpada que o Ocidente fazia do Oriente resultava de o tratar como uma entidade única; frequentemente descrito com estereótipos simplificados de exotismo, sensualidade, misticismo ou o despotismo; as narrativas orientais construídas pelo Ocidente descreviam o Oriente como passivo, decadente ou incapaz de autogovernar-se. O Oriente era visto como algo a ser "descoberto", "estudado" e "civilizado" pelo Ocidente, negando qualquer agência ou iniciativa própria aos povos orientais. O oriental era um objeto da história, enquanto os ocidentais eram os sujeitos, ou seja, os protagonistas do progresso e da civilização; as narrativas ocidentais descreviam o Oriente como atrasado e irracional, e deixavam de fora todos os aspectos que não se encaixavam nessa imagem. Mesmo eventos históricos complexos, como revoluções ou resistências, eram interpretados como sinais de fraqueza ou desordem, sem um esforço genuíno para entender as causas profundas desses movimentos; o Oriente era frequentemente retratado como exótico, misterioso e sensual – um lugar de fantasias e escapismo. Essa imagem, em grande parte fantasiosa, era usada tanto na literatura quanto na arte, reforçando a ideia de que o Oriente era algo "outro", diferente e inferior ao Ocidente, mas ao mesmo tempo atraente no seu exotismo; Said acusa ainda os estudiosos ocidentais de se terem apropriado do saber sobre o Oriente para seu próprio benefício, sem reconhecer ou valorizar os intelectuais e pensadores orientais; o Orientalismo é ainda uma ferramenta de poder político que justifica a expansão colonial, a intervenção militar e as políticas imperialistas do Ocidente. Ao representar o Oriente como incapaz, o Ocidente encontrava uma justificativa para invadir, colonizar e dominar essas regiões, afirmando que era para "ajudar" ou "civilizar"; as representações ocidentais frequentemente retratavam o Oriente como algo preso ao passado, incapaz de se modernizar ou acompanhar o progresso. No entanto, Said argumenta que isso ignorou os processos e transformações que ocorreram nas sociedades orientais, especialmente na segunda metade do século XIX e no início do século XX reforçando dessa forma as estruturas de domínio.
April 25,2025
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انه الكتاب العربي الوحيد في قائمه مائه كتاب غيروا تاريخ العالم للنابغه ادوارد سعيد
امتاع ابداع
لن تعتبر قارىء ومثقف بدون ذلك الكتاب
من وجهه نظرى
سرد
بساطه مفاهيم سلسه انيقه
تم ترجمته الي عده لغات
April 25,2025
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An amazing classic book from the late Edward Saïd about the origins of the Western view of the Orient that shaped literature and music in the 17th-20th century. It is a penetrating view of various racial stereotypes of Arab peoples (dressed in sheets smoking hookahs and generally under-educated and prone to laziness and violence) that pervades all levels of society and served the interests of colonialism to appease consciences of all the violence and subjugation that occurred in China, India the Middle East and Northern Africa. Particularly in these troubled times with racial slurs against Muslims becoming common currency (amd electoral policy), it remains relevant and eye-opening. Highly recommended along with its sequel, Culture and Imperialism.
April 25,2025
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هو تطوير تفصيلي ليس فقط للتمييز الجغرافي الأساسي الذي يقسم العالم لقسمين غير متكافئين شرق و غرب بل أيضا لسلسلة من المصالح التي يستعين في تحقيقها و الحفاظ عليها بشتى الوسائل مثل نتائج البحوث العلمية و إعادة البناء اللغوي القديم و التحليل النفسي و وصف الظواهر الطبيعية و المجتمعات و هو في حد ذاته إرادة معينة أو نية معينة أي إنه ليس مجرد تعبير عن الإرادة و النية لتفهم ما يبدو بوضوح أنه عالما مختلفا أو عالما بديلا و جديدا و للسيطرة عليه و التلاعب به في بعض الأحيان و ضمه إليه.

و هو و قبل كل شيء خطاب لا يرتبط مطلقا بعلاقة مباشرة بالسلطة السياسية السافرة و موازية لها
من الأخر و بدون فلسفات و تنظير طويل تمتليء به صفحات هذا الكتاب القيم فإن الاستشراق هو دراسة الشرق دراسة منحازة بوجهات نظر مسبقة و مدفوعة بأغراض استعمارية و نظرة فوقية لشعوب الشرق مهما تبين لنا غير ذلك و يدلل هنا إدوارد سعيد بوعيه كمثقف شرقغربي إن جاز التعبير على ذلك بدلالات عديدة يخلص منها بنتيجة أن على الشرق تمثيل نفسه بنفسه بدلا من ترك الساحة للمستشرقين للتأثير في الشعوب و صناع القرار.

من أصعب الكتب التي قرأتها أيضا كان هذا الكتاب
April 25,2025
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Yes--- in many ways, Said's "Orientalism" is a classic. And he's right about some things: Western art and literature created a whole fantasy world about "the Orient" (which included the Balkans and Russia) over the last few centuries; Western scholarship about North Africa or the Middle East or India could be (and was) used by colonial powers. But as critics (especially Bernard Lewis and Robert Irwin)have pointed out, Said took a handful of serious ideas and created his own fantasy world of "Orientalism" (destroying, as Lewis lamented, a perfectly honorable scholarly term). Said and his followers very nearly argue that any Western study of "the Orient" is invalid and nefarious from the start, and that any scholarship by Westerners is a tool of oppression and political domination. Said notoriously got the careers and beliefs of the great Orientalists of the 18th and 19th centuries wrong, and, despite some fine writing, produced in the end a book that conflated artistic and literary visions with intelligence gathered for conquest or rule and which came close to saying that only scholarship with a "correct" political message about the Middle East could ever be acceptable. A necessary read, but one that has to be complemented with a reading of Lewis' critiques and the debates between the two, and perhaps---- since the critique is from the Left ---even more so by reading Robert Irwin's "Dangerous Knowledge".
April 25,2025
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I think the problem with reading Orientalism today is that much of what he says (that was so revolutionary at the time) is so accepted now (at least among most academics). He's a brilliant writer, although he did irritate me at times (he constantly vilified anyone trying to represent anything, claiming, rightfully, that it is only possible to have a misrepresentation of anything built on one's own experiences and culture, and I did truly want to remind him that was what he was doing with Orientalism, too). Some of his scholarship is also a bit off (mistaking certain writers for other people with the same name, that sort of thing), but still, a seminal work. (One last aside--I would have also liked to have seen more women writers acknowledged by him, although at least in the case of Lucie Duff Gordon, he would have been more hardpressed to criticize her as he could some of the major Orientalists.)
April 25,2025
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Still the most influential book in Cultural, Near Eastern, Arab, Islamic, and Post-Colonialist Studies.

Interesting how everyone giving it a bad/ambivalent review is someone that simply can't acknowledge history - 200-300 years of colonialism which was then only replaced by neo-imperialism in the form of wars, economic exploitation, and political interference through force. Is the world any different even today? Obviously not. You're not hating the West by acknowledging this truth, Edward Said asserts this acknowledgment is the first step towards a fairer understanding of both sides. Knowledge and patriotism aren't mutually exclusive, contrary to what others might have you believe with their bigotry.

The "tide isn't changing" against this book in academia or outside, this book is as relevant today as it was 30 years ago. Nor is this book some vitriolic outcry against the West that some ignorant reviewers like to fallaciously classify it as.
Rather, it simply acknowledges a bias and uneven power dynamic in the shaping of East-West relations, conditions that are supported by historical and cultural facts, which ultimately resulted in how the West views the East today. A quite reasonable conclusion.

This is a book lauded by intellectuals and critics alike, the few "responses" to Said's assertions would be laughable if they weren't so lacking in credibility, written by pseudo-scholars that are ignored in academia like Ibn Warraq and Daniel Pipes but somehow get 5 stars on amazon.com from xenophobes and islamophobes.

Even Bernard Lewis, at one point the most influential Near Eastern Studies scholar in the West, only criticized Orientalism because he was forced to. In Orientalism, Said asserts that those of a particular culture, with appropriate education, intellect, and experience, were more capable of teaching their culture than a white man who only knows of that culture through his immersion in the academic bubble. Of course, Mr. Lewis couldn't stand by this as a westerner who made his living teaching about the Middle East.

Yet this isn't really a controversial position considering African-American Studies is taught by African-Americans as is Chicano Studies by Latinos. So why is it so shocking that in studies of the East, a minority has a more relevant view of their culture than a random who only knows of that culture through the vacuum of academia? The truth is, it isn't, if anything it's quite logical and reasonable - two characteristics we need more of in a post 9/11 world.

I urge you to not pay mind to the fallacious reasoning of those giving this book bad reviews, there's a reason it's still extremely influential and relevant even 35 years after being published. How many works can stand both the test of time and the test of critical academic scrutiny? Not many, which is why this work has continued to influence many professors and scholars. I hope someday to also join such scholars rising under its shadow like Columbia's eminent Near Eastern professor Massoud.

This was the first book to inspire me to become a professor, philosopher, and cultural critic just like Edward Said and I can proudly say I'm on that path.

To ignore this book is to simply ignore world history. I recommend this book so highly that if you read one book a year, this is the one for 2010.

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