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Poetics

aristotle malcolm heath

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'What is poetry, how many kinds of it are there, and what are their specific effects?'

Aristotle's Poetics is the most influential book on poetry ever written. A founding text of European aesthetics and literary criticism, from it stems much of our modern understanding of the creation and impact of imaginative writing, including poetry, drama, and fiction. For Aristotle, the art of representation conveys universal truths which we can appreciate more easily than the lessons of history or philosophy. In his short treatise Aristotle discusses the origins of poetry and its early development, the nature of tragedy and plot, and offers practical advice to playwrights.

144 pages, Paperback

First published January 1,-0335
Places
ancient greece, 

This edition

Format
144 pages, Paperback
Published
September 26, 1996 by Penguin Classics
ISBN
9780140446364
ASIN
0140446362
Language
English
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  • Aristotle (philosopher)

    Aristotle (philosopher)

    A Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoo...

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aristotle

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Aristotle (Greek: Αριστοτέλης; 384–322 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. His writings cover a broad range of subjects spanning the natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics, economics, politics, psychology, and the arts. As the founder of the Peripatetic school of philosophy in the Lyceum in Athens, he began the wider Aristotelian tradition that followed, which set the groundwork for the development of modern science.
Little is known about Aristotle's life. He was born in the city of Stagira in northern Greece during the Classical period. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At 17 or 18, he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of 37 (c. 347 BC). Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored his son Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC. He established a library in the Lyceum, which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls.
Though Aristotle wrote many treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. His teachings and methods of inquiry have had a significant impact across the world, and remain a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.
Aristotle's views profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. The influence of his physical science extended from late antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and was not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics were developed. He influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophies during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church.
Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher", and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply "The Philosopher", while the poet Dante Alighieri called him "the master of those who know". His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, and were studied by medieval scholars such as Pierre Abélard and Jean Buridan. Aristotle's influence on logic continued well into the 19th century. In addition, his ethics, although always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics.

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daphnechtholly
★ ★ ★ ★ ★
July 15,2025
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I just reluctantly gave my copy of Aristotle's Poetics to my son, who recently discovered drama. It is earmarked and highlighted and it guided me through university, telling me what I needed to know about tragedy and its core elements, such as unity of time, place and action.


The reason we started talking about drama was that my son didn't particularly like Emilia Galotti, Lessing's "Bürgerliche Tragödie". We talked about the strange code of honour that made a father kill his daughter to save her virtue. "What's progressive about that?" my son asked furiously. I found myself in the bizarre position to defend patriarchy and its flawed moral codes, by saying that it was modern "back then" to let a girl die "tragically" without being a princess or a queen.


My son raised his eyebrows, and I sensed the lack of logic. "So it was progressive that women of ALL classes were allowed to be sacrificed to the egos of men who considered them their property?" he questioned. "Eh!" I replied.


I love the fact that literature makes me challenge my own acquired knowledge, and think again about something I just took at face value when I read Emilia Galotti myself. For of course it is bizarre, especially considering that Lessing is a representative of Enlightenment culture.


And while we were at it, we talked about all the other bizarre elements of classical drama. We realised that it is more like life than we first thought. After all, each day we reinvent the narratives of our lives and press them into what we can perceive as one action, one place and one time: one day of madness and drama.


So yesterday I acted out the tragic loss of my university copy of Aristotle! It will stay in spirit.
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makawaiikitty
★ ★ ★ ★ ★
July 15,2025
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Aristotle is widely regarded as one of the most significant philosophers in history. Virtually every philosophy book I've perused has made mention of him. Consequently, I deemed it essential to explore his works to gain a more profound comprehension of those books and to cultivate my own philosophical perspective.

Nonetheless, this proved to be a challenging endeavor. Despite being Plato's pupil, their styles contrast sharply. Plato is more engaging and entertaining, whereas Aristotle is more rigid, lacking in any semblance of wit or humor. What I do value about Aristotle is his meticulous approach, leaving no stone unturned as he examines each topic from every conceivable angle.

His work "Poetics" delineates the fundamental elements of comedy, tragedy, and epic poetry, as well as the characteristics that render these art forms either excellent or deficient. It also offers critiques of numerous poets of that era, including Homer. I was thus grateful to have read the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey" beforehand. However, I felt that had I been more widely read in all forms of Greek poetry, I would have derived even more from it.

Previously, I had read Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics" and found it more captivating. I would suggest that you read that instead, unless you are well-versed in Greek poetry and find the subject matter of "Poetics" more alluring.
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thuytruc1995
★ ★ ★ ★ ★
July 15,2025
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This is truly very, very good.

I didn't quite manage to fully comprehend its entirety during the first reading, but I'm certain that the second time around will be even better.

I was rather surprised by Aristotle. It wasn't what I had expected, although perhaps my expectations were a bit hazy. The detailed examination of words and syllables, right through to the structure and plot development, was far more comprehensive than I had anticipated.

The essays included at the end were extremely helpful. I particularly relished the ones by Sidney and Sayers (and was a bit puzzled by Shelley). Sidney's discussion of the historian-philosopher-poet is excellent, albeit a little challenging. Again, a second read will be beneficial. Sayers' application of the elements of Aristotle to detective fiction was both insightful and useful in understanding what had come before. Plus, she's a clear 20th Century writer whose subjects - Holmes, Wimsey, Poirot - were familiar to me. It's important to view the Aristotle as a framework or paradigm, not necessarily as a set of precepts or strict rules/laws.

I read this book in my "Inspired by The Great Tradition" category of the Scholé Sisters 5x5 challenge. Now, it's on to Augustine On Christian Teaching.

In 2023, I listened to the audiobook just to jog my memory about some of the content in the book, but it's a vastly inferior way of interacting with the text compared to reading it.
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HyperlinkBlocked
★ ★ ★ ★ ★
July 15,2025
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There's something truly and terribly edifying when, after painstakingly creating your own rubric for how books should be judged, you unexpectedly pick up the very work from which all literary criticism had its origin. And lo and behold, you discover that you and Aristotle have independently arrived at the same system for judgment.

It's quite remarkable really. I'm well aware that perhaps it's just the result of cultural osmosis, that this knowledge has somehow seeped into my consciousness over time. But still, it gives me a glimmer of hope. It makes me think that maybe, just maybe, I'm on the right track. Maybe I'm piecing together this complex puzzle of literary analysis in the correct way.

It's a moment of validation, a connection to the great minds of the past. It makes me feel that my efforts are not in vain and that there is a certain universality to the principles of literary judgment.

It's a thought that lingers, a source of inspiration as I continue to explore the world of books and criticism.
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Marvln
★ ★ ★ ★ ★
July 15,2025
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It’s truly odd that the most ancient essay on literary criticism happens to be one of the easiest to understand. It is remarkably accessible.

If you contrast this with the works of Nietzsche, Hegel, and Freud, the extremities of this difference can be easily discerned. Aristotle expounds his theory in the most basic language conceivable, devoid of any artful language that might distance the reader. It is completely comprehensive and virtually impossible not to understand. Aristotle was a proponent of presenting his arguments in the simplest of languages, and for this, I am truly grateful.

Without this book, I don't think I would have been able to fully fathom precisely what a Tragedy is or how it functions, and I most definitely wouldn't have been able to pass the Tragedy module of my degree. The Poetics is essentially a guide, or rulebook, for what constitutes the perfect tragic play. Aristotle contends, or rather teaches us, that it is accomplished through a Cathartic moment that simultaneously arouses pity and fear. This occurs only if the plot is sufficiently complex, which gives rise to the tragic action.

The plot's complexity should be achieved through the use of recognition, a reversal, and copious amounts of suffering for everyone. The reversal is typically something like the revenger becoming the revenged, and this can be realized through recognition. The recognition is the true knowledge obtained about one's circumstance, which will invariably bring about suffering for the tragic character. Additionally, the tragic characters should have a hamartia, meaning they should have a tragic flaw. This could be something like extreme loyalty or ignorance. If you subscribe to the Hegel model of tragedy, then this is also the factor that makes the character "better than ourselves." The best illustration of a hamartia, and the one Aristotle employs, is Oedipus. His lack of knowledge causes him to murder his father and marry his mother, yet at the same time leads him to become a mighty King.

This is a work that every literature student is encouraged to read, and there is a valid reason for it. Aristotle's theory enlightens the reader to the devices underlying tragic art. Once you've perused this, you'll never be able to read a Tragedy again without having this in mind; it forms almost a mental checklist in your head.
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stationry
★ ★ ★ ★ ★
July 15,2025
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Reading Poetics, it becomes very clear to anyone acquainted with narrative structure that this book has exerted a profound influence throughout history. We still analyze narratives precisely as described in this book. In fact, for those desiring to better understand the "rules" of a proper narrative, there is no superior starting point than this work. Although Aristotle mainly focuses on Tragedy and Epic poetry, many of his ideas are universal and can serve as a reference for most narrative forms more generally.


This was my initial foray into Aristotle, and I believe it was a great place to begin. It was concise and easy to comprehend. I only regret not having read more of the works he references. Particularly Sophocles' Oedipus Rex, which is mentioned most frequently aside from Homer's works.


What intrigued me the most was the divergence between Aristotle and Plato on this subject. For Plato, art is an imitation of an imitation (reality being the imitation of the world of forms and art being the imitation of reality), which distances art further from the truth than reality. Aristotle, however, seems to be expressing something quite different in Poetics. He contends that poetry and, by extension, art in general is a "basic human, and therefore universal, experience." Aristotle claims that poetry "...is a more philosophical and higher thing than history: for poetry tends to express the universal, history the particular." These views differ most significantly in terms of whether we can use art to understand truth. On a moral level, Plato and Aristotle are once again in opposition. As seen in both The Ion and The Republic, Plato adheres to the view that art should be useful and beneficial to society. He believes that distasteful art forms could potentially harm society by arousing emotions that could be detrimental to the larger society. In contrast, Aristotle thinks that distasteful art forms (those that stir up emotions of hatred, vengeance, lust, etc.) are beneficial to society as a kind of cathartic mechanism.

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Farhan733
★ ★ ★ ★ ★
July 15,2025
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Super, this is all very interesting.

However, my brother, Plato is Plato.

My logic and philosophy professor said that the perfection of philosophy was achieved in Plato.

That's the end of the story.

Goodbye.

Plato is one of the most important figures in the history of philosophy. His ideas have had a profound impact on Western thought.

His works explore a wide range of topics, including ethics, politics, metaphysics, and epistemology.

According to my professor, Plato's philosophy represents the highest level of intellectual achievement.

It is a system of thought that is both comprehensive and profound.

While there may be other great philosophers, Plato's place in the history of philosophy is truly unique.

And that's why my professor holds him in such high regard.

Arivederči.
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ColorMeHappy
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July 15,2025
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I. Imitation is the essence of poetry and other arts. There are various kinds of poetry according to the means by which imitation is achieved.

II. Different kinds of poetry are also classified according to the objects imitated.

III. And they are further divided according to the way in which imitation is realized.

IV. The natural origin of poetry. It is divided into "serious" and "frivolous" poetry. The development of the "serious" branch: epic and tragedy. The evolution of tragedy.

V. The definition of comedy. Its origin and development in comparison with tragedy. The differences between tragedy and epic.

VI. The definition of tragedy. The elements that make it up and their respective significance.

VII. The first element of tragedy: the subject or myth. The subject must be complete and of a certain extent.

VIII. The unity of the subject.

IX. The subject should reflect the universal. The comparison between poetry and history. The most beautiful subjects.

X. Simple subject and complex subject.

XI. The elements of the complex subject: peripeteia, recognition, and the pathetic element.

XII. The quantitative divisions of tragedy: the prologue, the episode, the exodus, and the choral song.

XIII. Advice on arousing the emotions of pity and fear. The tragic hero.

XIV. The brutal tragic and the artistic tragic. The various ways of arousing the tragic emotion.

XV. The second element of tragedy: the characters.

XVI. On the various kinds of recognition used by tragic authors.

XVII. Advice to dramatists regarding the creation of tragedy.

XVIII. On plot and denouement. On the difference in structure between tragedy and epic. On the chorus.

XIX. Other elements of tragedy: style and thought.

XX. The elements of style: the letter, the syllable, the connective particle, the noun, the verb, the inflection, the sentence.

XXI. The noun: its various species from the point of view of poetic expression. Metaphor.

XXII. The characters of style: poetic expression and common expression.

XXIII. Epic. The common elements with tragedy. It is different from history.

XXIV. Other similarities and differences between tragedy and epic. Homer, the eternal model of artistic intuition.

XXV. Problems of literary criticism and their solutions.

XXVI. Comparison between tragedy and epic. The superiority of tragedy.


In addition to the 26 chapters of Aristotle, there are other chapters written by the translator of the volume, D. M. Pippidi, along with the commentary on Aristotle's chapters:

I. Variants in the Rostagni edition.

II. Aristotle and Aristophanes. Around the Aristotelian theory of comedy.

III. Aristotle and Thucydides. On the margin of chapter IX of the Poetics.

IV. The problem of inspiration in Aristotle and Horace.
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