I read this book because I liked David McCullough's "1776" so much -- especially the fifteen pages or so when he describes the Battle of Trenton.

This book takes those fifteen pages and expands it to a couple hundred pages. The level of detail is extraordinary, and Fischer does this without sacrificing readability.

Political and military history buffs both will enjoy the book very much.

David Hackett Fischer has produced a highly readable and fact-filled account of the important battles of the Revolutionary War following the Declaration of Independence. This conflict required a young, self-made country to draw soldiers from among its colonies to go against the strongest army of the time without the knowledge of how or when the outcome would play out. I think the heart of the American War of independence was the people of all classes who joined regiments and went to war under sometimes terrible physical conditions, for pay, food and clothing which was meager when available, which was not often. The glue which held this together was the aristocratic George Washington, whose prior military experience several decades earlier in the French and Indian War was far from stellar. How all of this came together and led to ultimate victory is the driving force of the historical study of this war.

This story begins in the summer of 1776, after the new American commander, Washington, had driven the British from Boston. The Colonists were able to use the terrain around that city to make it unbearable for the occupying British to remain there. New York was a different story. General Howe landed a powerful army of British regulars and German "Hessians" on Staten Island. Washington's strategy quickly changed from stopping the invasion to moving his gradually disintegrating army from one disastrous defensive position to another. Fischer provides clear maps showing the defeats and retreats from Long Island to Harlem Heights to Fort Washington by Washington's army after being tactically outmaneuvered by the British Navy and Army.

Washington's only "successes" during these months consisted of brilliantly executed and lucky withdrawals of his forces while on the verge of being enveloped by the enemy on several occasions. After his retreat across New Jersey to Trenton, and then across the Delaware River to Pennsylvania, Washington was able to stop running, but most of his army was killed, captured or had deserted by then. The remnants were due to end their enlistments at the end of the year. It was entirely possible, by the winter of 1776, that the Revolution would run out of steam.

Washington made a daring plan to turn his fortunes around. He crossed the Delaware River during the evening of Christmas to attack the Hessian regiment which had taken up winter quarters in Trenton. He put his 2,400 men in boats and crossed the river at night in a strong ice and snow storm. Fischer's descriptions and maps show how the Americans were able to maneuver into position to defeat a force of professional soldiers. Not content to withdraw with his prisoners back to Pennsylvania and sit out the winter, Washington kept his forces in Trenton to face the British relief army of General Cornwallis at Trenton. The Americans skillfully withdrew back along the route the British marched from Princeton, and fought successfully against the British there. Unlike the two next disastrous winters when the American Army would almost starve and freeze to death in encampments, the 1776-77 winter would be spent by the Americans in New Jersey, carrying on a "forage war" of attacks which effectively kept the British main forces tied up in New York City until the following spring.

Fischer writes a history which describes one of the great military reversals of all time. The casual reader can find a wealth of interesting information in an enjoyable read, while the historian and scholar will be impressed by the depth of research used in writing the book. Fischer always, though, is focused on the General who was able to keep his army going under all challenges, and the people who he led. The American Army at this time could contain a collection of types such as: Virginia gentlemen, New England seamen, Scot immigrants, western frontiersmen, Pennsylvania and New Jersey farmers. Some were attired in their civilian clothing as part of militia regiments; some wore the uniforms of state regiments. Some were black (it is interesting that the novelty of a racially integrated army starting in 1948 was actually preceded by the Revolutionary War).

I didn't make up the preceding description of American types fighting with Washington. The list is actually from Fischer's critique of the iconic painting of "Washington's Crossing the Delaware" by Emanuel Leutze. This American treasure in the Metropolitan Museum of Art was actually painted to inspire the 1848 European revolutionary movements by the artist, who had returned to Germany from America. It is interesting that the original 1850 painting remained in Germany and was destroyed by the bombing of Bremen in World War II; the famous painting in the Met is an exact Leutze copy of the original dated 1851.

Fischer ends his book with an examination of the historiography of the contribution Washington made to the Revolution through his victories at Trenton I and II and Princeton. I enjoyed reading his descriptions of the differing historical interpretations of these events by the Romantic Historians, Whigs, Nationalists, Debunkers, Multiculturalists and others. This section is a mini education on historical method. Fischer's position on the subject is that you can assign any motives you want to Washington and the Patriots, but the only fair conclusion of the cause they fought for is that they were trying to build a country according to the highest principles.

Two discoveries concerning the human condition were being put to the test here, not in academia but in a war for survival. The first was the principle that a society could be organized on the basis of liberty and freedom, and it could actually work. The other concerned the capacity of humans for order and discipline. These Enlightenment altruisms, not necessarily compatible with each other, were at work in 1776, when Washington had to lead an army of individualists who came from different colonies representing different sectional interests, many of whom joined up to preserve the idea of American independence from vasalege to the Mother Country. Nevertheless, these individualists needed to be trained to subvert their will and talents to the service of others, and to accept the military system of punishment and reward used to drill soldiers.

A last note on the importance of Leutz's painting. Fischer is aware of the debunkers who have trashed this painting because it contains numerous historical inaccuracies. Even the American flag dominating the center of the painting is incorrect, since it was not adopted until the following year. Fischer, however, chose to use the painting on his book cover because it is the greatest visual symbol of the spirit of the times. Leutz correctly portrays a boatload of soldiers facing great odds. The atmosphere of high drama and feelings of desperation portrayed here were no doubt clearly felt by the small force who just faced five months of disastrous defeats and now were operating with a sense of urgency to attempt one more, high-risk try to save a movement that they had devoted their lives to. America's greatest generation? It could very well be that.

I've been reading a lot of American Revolutionary history lately, and even so, David Hackett Fischer's 2003 volume Washington's Crossing, winner of the Pulitzer Prize for history, stands out as excellent. Much like David McCullough's fantastic 1776, Washington's Crossing focuses in on a narrow portion of the Revolutionary War and brings it to vivid life.

Washington's Crossing is devoted to an in-depth look at the New Jersey campaign of the winter of 1776-1777. However, Fischer doesn't just dump you into the icy Delaware River without some background. He starts off by examining each of the three armies involved, the American, British, and Hessian, looking at where they came from, how they viewed the Revolution, how they operated, and what their goals were. This section is extremely interesting, and did a lot to enhance my understandings of all sides.

The challenges Washington faced with Continental troops from all over the colonies and militia only vaguely under his command, the plans of British commanders Admiral and General Howe to pacify the countryside and aide the surely-numerous Loyalists in keeping the colonies under the King, and the economic and historical reasons Hessians became excellent mercenaries, and more - all of this was illuminating. Finally, Fischer gives an overview of the disastrous routing of the Continental Army during the New York campaign, which lead to the dire straights the Cause found itself in by November 1776.

Once he turns to the New Jersey campaign, Fischer breaks the action down into four main parts - the Battle of Trenton, the Battle of Assunpink Creek, the Battle of Princeton, and the Forage Wars. The Battle of Trenton, of course, is where the title of the book - and the famous painting - comes from, and was the initial shock that stunned the British and Hessians. Fischer does a great job of setting the scene for just how big a gamble this was for Washington. He also dispels the common myth about the Hessians being drunk on Christmas, as instead explaining how their openness to attack was a combination of fatigue from being on watch for days on end for militia who had been harassing them and an assumption that no one could be crazy enough to attack in the intense blizzard that, in fact, served the American purpose excellently by covering their approach.

My favorite part of the book, in fact, may be the part detailing the Battle of Assunpink Creek (also known as the Second Battle of Trenton). I hadn't even heard of this battle before. It was the British counterstrike after their loss at Trenton, and the Americans were forced into defending the indefensible city they had just taken from the Hessians days before. Through a combination of bravery from the men, ingenious generalship from Washington, and a willingness to fight the way that worked, instead of the way the British expected them to, the Americans not only won the battle, they were able to slip away from under the British's very noses in the middle of the night and make their way to Princeton, surprising the British once again with the American ability to show up where they weren't expected.

What followed was the Battle of Princeton, where the Americans ran into reinforcements headed to Trenton and defeated the British in a pitched battle on open field - a first. In less than two weeks, the Americans had run up several victories against the British, and rallied a Cause they seemed nearly dead only a month before. But they weren't done yet. The rest of the winter was consumed by the Forage War, in which the Americans - mostly militia - harassed the British in their winter quarters and while they attempted to supply their army from the countryside. By the spring of 1777, the British had gone from assuming the war was nearly over to, among some major leaders and many of the men, believing it could not be won.

Fischer covers all the bases in Washington's Crossing. He explains the motivations of the people and forces involved, he compellingly describes the battles with a novelist's flair, and he clearly lays out the effect the events of this book had on the Revolution as it continued. He really leaves no angle unexplored in this thorough effort, and is entertaining all the while.

One detail that aided the book greatly was the care given to the visual aspect of history. Maps of all the major encounters are plentiful, as are portraits of the major players, and they all appear in the text when the person is introduced, and not sequestered in a glossy break in the narrative midway though the pages of the book. This may not seem a big deal, but so many histories and biographies manage to mess it up that it's refreshing when it's handled well as it is in Washington's Crossing.

Finally, a comparison, since I mentioned it at the beginning, to David McCullough's 1776. There is certainly overlap between the two books. 1776 mainly covers between the Siege of Boston and the Battle of Princeton. It does so quite well, and is fantastic at covering the American side of the story. Washington's Crossing covers from the Battle of Long Island to the Forage Wars, and gives more attention to the British and Hessian side of the story than does 1776. Both are excellent and I recommend them to any fan of American history. If I had to pick one, it would probably be Washington's Crossing, by the narrowest of margins.

British General Lord Cornwallis, known to Americans as the loser at Yorktown in 1781, was also involved in the New Jersey campaign, and told Washington after Yorktown, "When the illustrious part that your Excellency has borne in this long and arduous contest becomes a matter of history, fame will gather your brightest laurels rather from the banks of the Delaware than from those of the Chesapeake." Cornwallis was right - as important as the later battles of the war were, Washington saved the Revolution with the Continental victories in the New Jersey campaign. Washington's Crossing will show you why.

I highly recommend David Hackett Fischer's Washington's Crossing to any fan of American or military history. Fishcer's work is compelling, thorough, well-researched, and most of all enjoyable. History fans will not be disappointed.

This book begins with the defeat of Washington in New York during the American Revolution. Three thousand soldiers were captured, most of whom died on prison ships (more men died on these ships than in all the battles of the war). Washington was down to 5,000 troops, and that number would drop even further as enlistments expired. Support for the war was surging in England and waning in America.

On December 25, 1776 Washington succeeded in crossing the icy Delaware River undetected… An incredible accomplishment. He then defeated the Hessians at Trenton and took 900 prisoners. He beat back a counter attack by Cornwalis delivering a decisive blow to England. It was a turning point in the war.

Fischer begins by explaining the famous painting of Washington’s crossing by the German painter Emmanuel Leutze. Modern critics complain that the painting is completely unrealistic and idealized. While there are a few historical inaccuracies (the flag), Fischer points out that many facets of the painting are accurate based on hundreds of written accounts of the event. The crossing was truly an heroic event.

Compared to the Civil War or World War II, the Revolutionary War was much smaller in scale and size. But size is not necessarily a measure of significance. Leutze knew that the American Revolution was an earth shaking event. This was the first time a society was successfully established on the basis of freedom. This was also the first time a free people successfully ordered themselves and disciplined themselves to preserve their freedom. His painting reflects that especially in the diversity of soldiers that are in the boat with Washington.

Notes

“A people unused to restraint must be led. They will not be drove.” George Washington

Washington’s closest companion was a tall African slave by the name of William Lee. He wore an exotic turban and long riding coat. He and Washingtom were both superb riders. Before the war they hunted together. They were both fearless. Washington later emancipated him.

Washington customarily attended church on Sundays, even during the war.

Washington’s challenge was to lead a diverse and independent army against a highly disicplined and professional army.

Washington came from the “Northern Neck of Virginia.” He lived by a creed of moral striving through virtuous action and right conduct. He believed that powerful men had a duty to lead others in a virtuous way. His credo combined power with responsibility and liberty with discipline.

The only fear that Washington ever mentioned in his writings was the fear that his actions would reflect eternal dishonor upon him.

A vital aspect of leadership was courage - the courage to do what was right. Liberty was independence from involuntary passion. The worst slavery was to be in bondage to unbridled passion and not in full possession of the self.

“Liberty” for the men of the Northern Neck of Virginia, was determined by economic status. Economically independent men (land owners, etc.) had the most liberty. Slaves had the least.

Washington kept men of lower social rank at a distance. For Washington and his era, “condescension” was to treat men of lower rank with respect while maintaining a system of inequality.

He built one of the largest family fortunes with a net worth of more than a million dollars. His estate included many thousands of acres and three hundred slaves. After 1775 he spoke of slavery as an evil. He emancipated all his slaves in his will.

He was a major in the Virginia Militia at the age of 20. He gained a lot of experience during the French and Indian War. At 23 he was a colonel. He was a disciplinarian. “Discipline is the soul of an army.” His American troops did not respond well to this!

The New England soldiers were probably the most literate soldiers in the world. Almost all could read and write. They were very independent minded. They were all caught up in the poltical debates of the day. Washington needed to compromise with the New Englanders. He couldn’t force them to obey him, but they needed to understand that not everything was a town meeting.

American riflemen were highly skilled. It was not unusual for them to hit targets as small as the tip of a nose at 250 yards over and over again. British and Hessian officers lived in fear of the American riflemen.

The Culpepper Minute Men wore rough brown shirts, a bucktail on their hats, and a tomahawk or scalping knife in their belt. Their flag was the image of a timber rattler with the words “Don’t Tread on Me.” They were from the Blue Ridge Mountains of West Virginia. Many Virginians feared them as much as they feared Indians.

The Liberty Bell in Philadelphia was an iconic symbol of American freedom. It was inscribed with a verse from Leviticus, “Proclaim LIBERTY Throughout all the Land unto all the Inhabitants Thereof," (Leviticus 25.10). However, there were different ideas of liberty at that time among the American colonies. The Virginians believed in an economically stratified liberty. The West Virginians had a radical view of fierce individual independence.

The British Navy and Army were led by the Howe brothers, Richard and William. Richard was a quiet, methodical man. Of William, the author said, “Priviledge opened the doors of opportunity. Merit took him through them.” He was also quiet, like his brother. When the war was over, he returned to England wearing buckskin and and Indian moccasins. His relatives called him “The Savage.”

The thousands of American soldiers, each with their own personal weapons, loved to fire them at will - sometime injuring one another. This lack of discipline infuriated George Washington. “Constant firing in the camp, not withstanding general orders, is very scandalous! And seldom a day passes but some persons are shot by their friends.”

In many port cities like New York, twenty percent of women of childbearing age were prostitutes. Washington issued stern warnings against “lewd women.” But his troops in New York suffered and epidemic of veneral disease.

Field sanitation was a great problem for the Americans. One officer wrote that the troops were “easing themselves in the ditches of the fortifications, a practice that is disgraceful to the last degree!” They lacked experience and camp discipline and paid a terrible price for this with all sorts of gastro-instestinal diseases. One chaplain wrote, “Many were sick with dysentery and other putrid disorders.”

The British were surprised and irritated by the attitude of defeated and captured Americans. In their minds they were dishonored. But the Americans believed in their cause and that they would win in the end.

Captain Nathan Hale, a young Yale graduate, volunteered to spy against the British. He disguised himself as a Dutch schoolmaster and entered the British camp with great courage but little skill. He gave himself away. General Howe ordered a summary execution on September 24, 1776. Before his death he repeated a few lines from Addison’s Cato (a play that inspired the Americans): “How beautiful is death when earned by virtue. Who would not be that youth? What pity is it that we can die but once to serve our country.”

The Howes had more than half the British armed forces. One of their biggest problems was maintaining supply.

Thomas Paine published the essay, The American Crisis, on December 19, 1776. He insisted that it be sold for two cents to cover only printing costs. It spread rapidly. This essay helped re-inspire the Americans.

John Whitherspoon, aScottish Presbyterian pastor, was president of the College of New Jersey, later Princeton. He was a representative from New Jersey to the Continental Congress and the only signer of the Declaration of Independence who wore clerical bands. He closed the college in November 1776 and continued to support the revolution. The British made Nassau Hall at Princeton, their headquarters.

The Americans, British, and Hessians plundered. Fischer claims that the Hessians plundered on a much more severe scale. The Americans carried off what their hands could hold. The Hessians plundered by the wagon load. The Hessian women, who followed the army, were the most formidable plunderers of all.

British abuse of women was a serious problem. Howe denied it, but Fischer said there was evidence from junior officers that knew better. The people of New Jersey responded with sabotage and ambush.

As law and order collapsed, the civilians were at war with themselves.

Most people in the 18th century were unable to swim. This included the soldiers crossing the icy Delaware.

Washington’s password for the operation was “Victory or Defeat.” He personally wrote this on small slices of paper for all the units.

Washington often presented his ideas as someone else’s idea rather than his own. He felt that this invited more honest discussion and debate.

Rommel’s Law: Battles are won or lost by the quartermasters before the first shot is fired.

By 1777 more than half of Howe’s army of British regulars and Hessians (31,000) were either killed, captured or rendered ineffective (wounded or sick). Britain suffered from lack of troops for the rest of the war.

Washington was always listening, encouraging, guiding. He rarely demanded, commanded or coerced.

Since the founding of Jamestown, Americans have fought a major war in every generation, sixteen generations. But they always thought of fighting as an interruption in their lives. They did not fight for the sake of fighting, they fought to win.

William Howe complained that the Americans moved with much more celerity than the British. Both the British and the Hessians were too attached to their baggage. Americans could move their army at two miles per hour, no small accomplishment given bloody feet and muck choked roads.