Ha. Finally, there is a reading where we get to read the whole book. And this whole book is short, which is quite a relief. Rousseau, in a way, is really remarkable. However, it's kind of a pity that this man doesn't seem to appreciate women.

Reread this for historical value rather than rhetorical value since Rousseau was a great influence on key players in the French Revolution (my current deep dive).

I don't know how to rate this. If I were to rate it knowing the historical value and influence, it would be 4 stars.

For sheer persuasiveness and personal enjoyment, I'd rate it 3 stars. I was more impressed by Rousseau's arguments in high school, even though strangely am closer philosophically now than I was in high school.

Rousseau's ideas had a profound impact on the French Revolution. His works were studied and debated by the key figures of that era.

When considering the historical value, it is clear that his influence cannot be underestimated.

However, from a rhetorical perspective, some may find his writing style less engaging.

Nonetheless, his ideas still hold significance today.

As I continue my deep dive into the French Revolution, I am constantly reminded of Rousseau's importance.

His philosophical concepts have shaped the way we think about society, politics, and human nature.

Despite the differences in my perception of his work over the years, I still appreciate his contributions to the field of philosophy.

Rousseau's Article in Two Parts:

Rousseau and the Problem of Freedom - Part One
Link to Part One


Rousseau and the Problem of Freedom - Part Two
Link to Part Two



Rousseau's political philosophy is considered to be in the middle between Hobbes' absolutism and Locke's liberalism. In the first chapter of his book "The Social Contract", Rousseau explores the correct legal basis for governing the civil system that takes into account the balance between the absolute freedom of man and the loss of part of his freedom within the framework of the social and civil system of the state. He says in the opening of the first section of this chapter: "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains. One thinks himself the master of others, and still remains a greater slave than they. How did this change come about? I do not know. What can make it legitimate? That question I think I can answer."

Rousseau's ideas have had a profound impact on political thought. His exploration of the relationship between individual freedom and the social contract is still relevant today. By delving into these concepts, we can gain a better understanding of how to balance the rights and freedoms of individuals within a society. His work challenges us to think about the nature of government and the role it should play in protecting and promoting the freedom of its citizens.

Title: A Problematic Article

The original article seems to have some issues.

It is not clear whether the problem lies in the translation or the writer himself.

The text appears to be disjointed and lacks coherence.

Perhaps the translator did not accurately convey the intended meaning, or the writer failed to organize the thoughts properly.

Without further clarification, it is difficult to determine the exact cause of the problem.

However, it is evident that the current state of the article makes it hard to understand and follow.

To improve the article, it would be necessary to either retranslate it more accurately or rewrite it from scratch, ensuring better connection and flow between the ideas.

This would make the article more accessible and engaging for the readers.

How did people start to use words to express abstract ideas such as love, reason, freedom, death, or life?

This is a fascinating question that delves into the very essence of human communication and language evolution.

In the early days of human civilization, language was likely simple and concrete, used mainly to describe immediate experiences and needs. However, as humans developed more complex societies and cultures, they began to grapple with intangible concepts that couldn't be easily expressed through physical gestures or simple words.

To convey these abstract ideas, people may have started by using metaphors and analogies, comparing the unknown to something more familiar. For example, love might have been described as a warm embrace or a burning fire, while death could have been likened to a long sleep or a journey into the unknown.

Over time, these metaphors and analogies became more refined and developed into specific words and phrases that we use today to express our deepest emotions and thoughts.

The evolution of language to express abstract ideas is a testament to the remarkable creativity and adaptability of the human mind. It allows us to share our most profound experiences and connect with others on a deeper level, even across time and cultures.

Rousseau's profound insights have had a significant impact on Kant's theory. Without Rousseau's meticulous reflections on "the distance from pure sensations to the simplest knowledge", Kant might not have been able to formulate his theory that "Men work themselves gradually out of barbarity if only intentional artifices are not made to hold them in it." Rousseau emphasizes that this distance could not have been overcome without communication. He further elaborates on how astonishingly slow the process of creating language must have been. Society, he argues, must have preceded the emergence of real language. The first ideas were likely nouns that functioned as complete sentences, and thought as a whole was particular rather than generalized. With the creation of language and abstract ideas, property eventually came into being, and property transformed society into the new state of nature. At the conclusion of the discourse, Rousseau vividly illustrates this new nature by stating, "The savage lies in himself; sociable man, who lives outside himself, is capable of living only in the opinion of others."

Rousseau's philosophy regarding the original nature of man is based on two fundamental principles. One is a human's concern for self-preservation, and the other is a "natural repugnance to seeing any sentient being, especially our fellow man, perish or suffer." However, society has corrupted these two principles. Rousseau contends that a man in his natural state would never have committed suicide or deliberately harmed himself in any way. Yet, he observes that in the age of enlightenment, people with an abundance of free time and the luxury of deep thought sometimes engage in such self-destructive behaviors. He further develops the idea that humans have lost much of their pity and compassion. The formation of societies and economic classes has made humans jealous or scornful of one another. The wealthy view the poor or working class merely as another form of property, while the working class feels only jealousy and animosity towards the wealthy. This division of humanity gives rise to hatred and a sense of satisfaction at the misfortune of those in a different class. He states, "Natural inequality in the human species must increase as a result of instituted inequality."

The title attracts you... The content is unconnected and the idea is not clear. Perhaps because of the translation. The version is translated by Adil Zeaiter. Perhaps other translations are better.

It seems that the original text might have suffered in the translation process, resulting in a lack of coherence and clarity. The title manages to catch one's attention initially, but once you start reading the content, it becomes a bit of a jumble.

Maybe Adil Zeaiter's translation didn't quite capture the essence of the original. There could very well be other translations out there that would do a better job of presenting the material in a more understandable and engaging way.

It's important to consider different translations when trying to fully understand and appreciate the intended message.

The book itself was a bit of a ripper. However, here I want to convey my great delight at the editor's decision to include Voltaire's commentary in the endnotes.

When writing in the margins of the copy sent to him by Rousseau, Voltaire reveals that he is not overly impressed by the efforts of his contemporary. Alongside single-word zingers such as "Ridiculous" and "False", perhaps my favorite Voltairean put-down comes after this passage, where Rousseau claims that "savages" are unable to experience the "moral" aspect of love.

"Imagination, which causes so much havoc among us, never speaks to the heart of savages; everyone quietly awaits the impulse of nature, responds to it involuntarily with more pleasure than frenzy; and once the need is satisfied, all desire is extinguished." (p. 103)

To this, the acerbic Voltaire retorts: "How do you know? Have you ever seen savages making love?"

I dare say he hadn't, indeed.

May this philosophical sparring continue to thrive and endure for yet another three centuries to come!

**Original Article**: The importance of recycling cannot be overemphasized. It helps to conserve natural resources, reduce waste, and protect the environment. Recycling also has economic benefits as it creates jobs and reduces the need for raw materials. Therefore, we should all make an effort to recycle as much as possible.

**Expanded Article**:

The importance of recycling truly cannot be overemphasized.

Recycling plays a crucial role in conserving our precious natural resources. By recycling materials such as paper, plastic, metal, and glass, we can reduce the need to extract and process new raw materials. This not only helps to preserve the earth's finite resources but also reduces the energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions associated with the extraction and production processes.

Moreover, recycling is an effective way to reduce waste. Landfills are filling up quickly, and recycling can help to divert a significant amount of waste from these landfills. This not only helps to reduce the environmental impact of waste disposal but also frees up valuable landfill space.

In addition to its environmental benefits, recycling also has significant economic benefits. The recycling industry employs a large number of people, creating jobs in areas such as collection, sorting, processing, and manufacturing. Recycling also reduces the need for raw materials, which can lead to cost savings for businesses.

Therefore, it is essential that we all make an effort to recycle as much as possible. By recycling, we can all do our part to protect the environment, conserve natural resources, and support the economy.

**Why Rulers are Rulers and Why We Serve Them**

On 18 January 2013, I found this book an interesting read with some captivating concepts. It somewhat resembles Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, yet many of its ideas are based on speculation, and Rousseau's conclusions seem more like guesswork. It's fascinating to see such a discourse written over a hundred years before Darwin's Origin of Species, and it appears Darwin borrowed from this text. However, Rousseau wrote this as a political discourse, not a scientific one.

Some of us might find the idea of human origin from a bestial state offensive, but Rousseau has valid points. For example, when we invent the sling, our ability to throw a rock diminishes, just as when we invent a ladder, our tree-climbing ability lessens. This is what separates us from animals - our capacity to develop and invent tools. I struggle to believe we could take down a full-grown lion before inventing the spear or sword.
Rousseau also discusses the development of private property. It began when someone fenced a block of land and declared it as their own. But it was the world's acknowledgement that created ownership. If the fence was torn down and the person was attacked, the law of property would be meaningless. In reality, law has no power on its own. It requires the acceptance of the people subject to it. If not willingly submitted to, coercion through the threat of punishment gives the law force, with the police and army ensuring enforcement.
Once laws were created to regulate human behavior, a class of lawyers emerged to challenge and find loopholes. It's not about a simple tribal or dictatorial system but a more sophisticated one where the power to regulate the law is given to a bureaucracy. Rousseau suggests inequality arose when one person could gather enough food for two and hoard it. While hunter-gatherers have always stored food, it's about collecting, making it property, and using it to control others. This is how government is formed. A class of cunning and charismatic people administer the population, and to feed themselves, they rely on a class of workers or farmers. With the food, they create a class of enforcers to maintain their power.
Finally, Rousseau mentions enslavement. When we delegate a task to someone else, we become enslaved. Even those in power or the uber-rich are slaves as they rely on servants. We are also slaves to inanimate objects like cars, televisions, and the internet.

Not necessarily bad by any means - I was just uninterested. The text was a bit of a slog to read, especially the first half. However, there were some really interesting and noteworthy ideas peppered throughout. I can definitely see the value in it. But for me, I just didn't connect with it all that much.

The discussions I had about it in my class, "Moderns" at Villanova University, were interesting. We read this after reading Shakespeare's The Tempest and Aimé Cesaire's A Tempest, so the connection between them was really fascinating. It added another layer of depth to the text and made the discussions more engaging.

Despite the interesting ideas and the engaging class discussions, it was still a bit of a struggle to get through the text. Maybe it was the writing style or the subject matter that didn't quite click with me. But I do appreciate the effort that went into creating it and the insights it provided.

The quality of a book is measured by the extent and duration of the endurance of its ideas. Here, Rousseau turns the scales, making civilization seem like savagery and the primitive state seem like the first innocence.

This is a very important book and it is well worth reading. It challenges our traditional观念 and makes us think deeply about the nature of humanity and society. Rousseau's ideas are still relevant today, as we continue to grapple with the issues of progress, civilization, and the meaning of life.

Whether you are a student of philosophy, history, or sociology, or simply someone who is interested in exploring the human condition, this book is sure to provide you with valuable insights and food for thought.